[3] Out of the six potential technologies, Sodium-cooled Fast neutrons, an SFR uses fast neutrons, which are neutrons that have not The heat exchanger is placed outside the concrete radiation shielding. Light-water reactors are refueled by removing the reactor headafter lowering and unlatching the safety rods in the case of a PWR. Over time, light-water reactors have tended to increase in size, reaching electric capacity ratings of 1,000 megawatts or more. air and water. This makes it difficult to use water as a coolant for a fast reactor because the water tends to slow (moderate) the fast neutrons into thermal neutrons (although concepts for reduced moderation water reactors exist). SFRs hold several advantages over certain nuclear reactors including other types of fast reactors. project by the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission 0000001132 00000 n The liquid sodium gets cooled in the heat exchanger and goes back to the reactor vessel. MSRs are reactors that use a fluid fuel in the form of either molten fluoride or chloride salt mixed with a liquid fuel in the form of UF 4 or thorium. The second-generation reactor is a design class of nuclear reactors referring to the commercial reactors constructed by the end of the 1990s. There are two principal types of HTGRs, including Pebble Bed Reactors (PBRs) and Prismatic Block Reactors (PMRs). In this design, to penetrate the moderator and control the reaction, boron control rods are utilized. IRSN 2012/158, September 2012. Multi-metal composite; Thermal management material; Battery box / tray; About Us; R&D; Events. The reactor is designed to produce a maximum thermal power of 3 Mw and a maximum exit He temperature of 2400 deg F. The purpose of the experimert is to evaluate the advantages of the simple fuel against the disadvantages of the associated operation of a contaminated coolant loop. However, in the second generation of the gas cooled reactors, the steam generators are installed inside the concrete pressure vessel, which needs a much larger structure and, therefore, more capital costs. [8] The electrically-conductive molten sodium can be moved by electromagnetic pumps. More recent designssmall modular reactors that produce 300 megawatts or lessmay be able to provide energy on a more economic scale and thus appeal to a much broader market. The Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor (AGR) is a designed and operated nuclear reactor in the UK. It is focused on the following subjects: state of the art of liquid metal fast reactor (LMFR) development; design features and operating experience of demonstration and commercial sized nuclear power plants with sodium cooled fast reactors; lead-bismuth cooled (LBC) ship reactor operation experience and LBC fast power reactor development; Leak proof heat exchanger must be used, which increases extra cost. And fire hazard risk, corrosion and production of radioactive products are other threats. Generation IV reactors (Gen IV) are nuclear reactor designs that are envisioned as successors of generation III reactors.The Generation IV International Forum (GIF) is an international organization that coordinates the development of generation IV reactors.. GIF selected six reactor technologies as candidates for generation IV reactors: the gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR), the lead-cooled fast . The Magnox design is replaced by the advanced gas cooled reactor with a similar cooling system but some changes to improve the economic performance. : +43 1 2600 22529, +43 1 2600 22530Fax: +43 1 2600 29302Email: sales.publications@iaea.org, Vienna International Centre, PO Box 100 work is the author's own and that Stanford University provided no input Some gas cooled reactors have been constructed and operated using either carbon dioxide gas or helium for the reactor core cooling. A sodium leak could lead to the production of toxic Therefore, short-term reprocessing of the fuel is essential and requires highly shielded facilities for this. All Rights Reserved. Two reactors being constructed on Changbiao Island in, Suspended for 15 years. Liquid metal cooling is also used in most fast neutron reactors including fast breeder reactors such as the Integral Fast Reactor. Liquid metal coolant has been applied to both thermal- and fast-neutron reactors. In addition, unlike conventional PWRs and BWRs (boiling water reactors), some gas cooled reactor designs have the ability to be refueled during the full-power performance, which presents some operational advantage and higher plant availability. basic power cycles in nuclear power plants. The reference liquid coolants for Generation IV reactors are sodium (Na), lead (Pb) and the lead-bismuth eutectic (Pb-Bi). This allows the system to transfer more heat over greater distances. Hence, the salt can be both the fuel and the coolant at the same time. The reactor core in all such systems is a tightly packed bundle of fuel in steel cladding through which the sodium coolant flows to extract the heat. suffered from corrosion and sodium leaks that resulted in runaway The program plans to use High-Assay, Low Enriched Uranium fuel containing 5-20% uranium. This value is better than modern Pressurized Water Reactors (PWRs), with a typical thermal efficiency of about 34%. Suitable liquid metal coolants must have a low neutron capture cross section, must not cause excessive corrosion of the structural materials, and must have melting and boiling points that are suitable for the reactor's operating temperature. Because it operates at atmospheric pressure, a large containment shield is not necessary. 66 0 obj<>stream It is focused on the following subjects: state of the art of liquid metal fast reactor (LMFR) development and relevant IAEA activities; design features and operating experience of demonstration and commercial sized nuclear power plants with sodium cooled fast . "Generation Due to their high thermal conductivity, metal coolants remove heat effectively, enabling high power density. There are two basic types: the pressurized-water reactor (PWR) and the boiling-water reactor (BWR). This work contains basic information on the pyrolysis process concerning the . [4] Furthermore, a sealed coolant system is needed as 0000002574 00000 n 0000001604 00000 n explosion that delayed the reactor's repairs after a partial core Each LWR design has its own advantages and disadvantages, and as a result, a competitive economic market has existed between the BWR and PWR concepts since the 1960s. Water is a much stronger neutron moderator because the hydrogen atoms found in water are much lighter than metal atoms, and therefore neutrons lose more energy in collisions with hydrogen atoms. The outlet temperature and pressure of the super heater were designed to be 170 bar and 543 C. The US EBR-2, French Phnix and others used this approach, and it is used by India's Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor and China's CFR-600. Do You Know Which African American Inventor Created Which Product? The reactor produced a total of 37 GW-h of electricity. They both were mainly built in their countries of origin, with several export sales: two Magnox plants to Japan and Italy and a UNGG to Spain. Magnesium oxide has an order of magnitude lower probability of interacting with neutrons (thermal and fast) than elements such as iron. The high boiling point of lead provides safety advantages as it can cool the reactor efficiently even if it reaches several hundred degrees Celsius above normal operating conditions. Terms of Use, Governmental, legal and regulatory framework, Security of nuclear and other radioactive material, Radioactive waste and spent fuel management, Zoonotic Disease Integrated Action (ZODIAC), International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles (INPRO), IAEA Marie Sklodowska-Curie Fellowship Programme, Catalogue of review missions and advisory services, Peer review and advisory services calendar, Global Nuclear Safety and Security Network (GNSSN), International Nuclear Information System (INIS), Advanced Reactors Information System (ARIS), Integrated Nuclear Fuel Cycle Information System (iNFCIS), Spent Fuel and Radioactive Waste Information System (SRIS), Offices Reporting to the Director General, Liquid Metal Cooled Reactors: Experience in Design and Operation. Since both claddings react with water, they may be stored in a spent fuel pool only shortly. Sodium has high thermal conductivity, meaning that it can effectively remove heat from the fuel rods. In the PWR, water at high pressure and temperature removes heat from the core and is transported to a steam generator. secondary molten sodium stream can exchange its heat with water to The secondary loop contains an alloy of sodium and potassium in liquid form. Cooling specific components. '5Mhl8ljM%RVQ r qvpS)\GCnbM68&9q>#2q[a)P2t:9{ X4`jl6>!ZS]w.yT**sbF"Xh#={%_:0/ M\@. However, because lead has a high melting point and a high vapor pressure, it is tricky to refuel and service a lead cooled reactor. Most of them were constructed from the 1950s to the 1970s in the UK, and few were exported to other countries. Neutron cross-section of steel is higher than beryllium, and this shift requires the application of enriched uranium fuel to balance. 0000012196 00000 n Furthermore, because the BWRs power density is somewhat lower than that of the PWR, the pressure vessel must be built to a larger diameter for the same reactor power. This advantage comes from the fact that water or any liquid coolant has higher heat capacity, density, and thermal conductivity than air. 43 0 obj <> endobj The once-through boiler operates based on the critical point of water. [citation needed] Neutron activation of sodium also causes these liquids to become intensely radioactive during operation, though the half-life is short and therefore their radioactivity does not pose an additional disposal concern. This period was set so that taken loans for the plant would be paid off. This figure demonstrates an early design of Magnox with a cylindrical steel pressure vessel. The melting point can be lowered by alloying the lead with bismuth, but lead-bismuth eutectic is highly corrosive to most metals[4][5] used for structural materials. These types of reactors can obtain very high fuel utilization rates and work at high temperatures. FCCI causes the cladding to reduce in strength and even rupture. Most use a liquid metal as the coolant because it does not slow neutrons. The fact that the sodium is not pressurized implies that a much thinner reactor vessel can be used (e.g. Amongst different emerging energy technologies, nuclear energy (SCWR). (CEA) in 2010. If you would like to learn more about the IAEAs work, sign up for our weekly updates containing our most important news, multimedia and more. A reactor of this kind consists of a tank, or calandria vessel, containing a cold heavy water moderator at atmospheric pressure. Since the 1980s, they have been the backbone of the nuclear power generation fleet of the UK. Designs," Institut de Radioprotection et de Sret A new assembly is simply pushed into one end of a pressure tube, and the spent fuel that it replaces is collected as it is extruded at the opposite end. According to the numbers indicated in the figure, the names of the components of this reactor are as follows: The hot coolant means temperature exiting the reactor core was designed to be 648C. For instance, although there are fewer mechanical components in the steam cycle of a BWR design, additional components are required to support the reactors emergency core-cooling system. While actually a sub-actinide, it immediately precedes actinium (89) and follows a three-element gap of instability after, This is the heaviest nuclide with a half-life of at least four years before the ", "Fast Neutron Reactors | FBR - World Nuclear Association", "GE Hitachi, TerraPower Team on Nuclear-Storage Hybrid SMR", "PacifiCorp, TerraPower Evaluating Deployment of Up to Five Additional Natrium Advanced Reactors", "Bill Gates' nuclear venture plans reactor to complement solar, wind power boom", Unusual occurrences during LMFR operation, "Neutronic Assessment of Transmutation Target Compositions in Heterogeneous Sodium Fast Reactor Geometries", "Bill Gates's next-gen nuclear plant packs in grid-scale energy storage", "China Fast Reactor 600 to be Launched in 2023, 2026 Draws International Attention | Tech Times", "Three premiers plan to fight climate change by investing in small nuclear reactors", Idaho National Laboratory Sodium-cooled Fast Reactor Fact Sheet, Generation IV International Forum SFR website, "Meet the Man Who Could End Global Warming", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sodium-cooled_fast_reactor&oldid=1135604703. The sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR) uses liquid metal (sodium) as a coolant instead of water that is typically used in U.S. commercial power plants. This is because of the greater coolant outlet temperature (about 640 C for AGRs rather than about 325 C for PWRs). The AGR was designed so that the final conditions of steam at the boiler stop valve were equal to that of conventional coal-fired power plants. Instead, a sodium-sodium heat exchanger is used where the The second-generation reactors usually had an initial design life of 30 or 40 years. In total, fourteen AGR reactors were built at six sites between 1976 and 1988. Telephone: +43 (1) 2600-0, Facsimile +43 (1) 2600-7, 19982023 IAEA, All rights reserved. The nuclear fuel cycle employs a full actinide recycle with two major options: One is an intermediate-size (150600MWe) sodium-cooled reactor with uranium-plutonium-minor-actinide-zirconium metal alloy fuel, supported by a fuel cycle based on pyrometallurgical reprocessing in facilities integrated with the reactor. Also, at discharge, the fuel burnup ratio is lower. In principle it could be accomplished in two weeks, but in practice nuclear power plants undergo maintenance during reload, which often takes considerably more timeup to several months. The first generation of French nuclear power plants was UNGGs. The reactor core in all such systems is a tightly packed bundle of fuel in steel cladding through which the sodium coolant flows to extract the heat. Electric-power generation is obtained through the transfer of the heat of fission into the heavy-water coolant, which is circulated to a steam generator. Both reactors may put the fuel in an annulus section with a graphite center spire, according to the design and desired power of the reactor. During the 1970s, light-water reactors represented the cheapest source of new electricity in most parts of the world, and it still is economical in many countries such as Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, France, and China (which, in the 1990s, embarked on an ambitious program of building nuclear power plants, almost all of them using light-water technology). The GCR could utilize natural uranium as fuel, and the countries that have developed them were able to produce their fuel without any dependence on other countries to supply enriched uranium. has the potential to become a prominent low-emission supplier. GIF R&D In all types the heat extracted from the core by primary sodium is transferred to a secondary, nonradioactive sodium loop, which serves as the heat source for a steam generator that heats the water in a tertiary loop to power a turbine. They also generate process heat used in hydrogen production and low-temperature applications, including seawater desalination and district heating. View chapter Purchase book Breeder Reactors Raymond L. Murray, in Nuclear Energy (Fourth Edition), 1993 13.3 The Fast Breeder Reactor Fast reactors have been operated successfully throughout the world. The Very High Temperature Reactor (VHTR) is a type of high-temperature gas cooled reactors (HTGRs) that, in concept, can reach high outlet temperatures, up to 1000 C. The water in the secondary loop enters the steam generator at a pressure and temperature slightly below that required to initiate boiling. Some attention is also given to the prospective uses of reactors for space travel and for certain industrial purposes. thermal conductivity and heat capacity creates a large thermal inertia Sodium-cooled fast reactors are described briefly in Chapter 3.Some more details are discussed below [15-18]. The alloy that forms has a low eutectic melting temperature. A BWR operates on the principle of a direct power cycle. However, the half-life of activated sodium is only 15 hours. They have also been used to power nuclear submarines. In general, the major disadvantage of liquid metal coolant is that the reactor core is immersed in opaque molten metal depending upon the choice of metal. increase. In general, liquid metal corrosion impacts the wall thickness, thus the load-bearing capability of the structural materials but can also degrade their mechanical behavior. In both variants, the coolant consists of helium pressurized to approximately 100 bars, or roughly 100 standard atmospheres. Water is a much stronger neutron moderator because the hydrogen atoms found in water are much lighter than metal atoms, and therefore neutrons lose more energy in collisions with hydrogen atoms. generator or cause a hydrogen explosion. At Dounreay in Caithness, in the far north of Scotland, the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA) operated the Dounreay Fast Reactor (DFR), using NaK as a coolant, from 1959 to 1977, exporting 600 GW-h of electricity to the grid over that period. In July 1959, the Sodium Reactor Experiment suffered a serious incident involving the partial melting of 13 of 43 fuel elements and a significant release of radioactive gases. Ease of control. [7], Another problem is leaks. Home > Uncategorized > Gas Cooled Reactor. Liquid cooling refers to reducing the temperature of the battery by taking away the heat generated by the battery in operation through the cooling pipe inside the battery pack and the cooling liquid of the cooling plate. IV Nuclear Reactors," Physics 241, Stanford University, Winter 0000014282 00000 n However, some of them work at a lower output than design due to operational limitations. However, because of disadvantages including high toxicity, high vapor pressure even at room temperature, low boiling point producing noxious fumes when heated, relatively low thermal conductivity,[2] and a high[3] neutron cross-section, it has fallen out of favor. Innovations can reduce capital cost, such as modular designs, removing a primary loop, integrating the pump and intermediate heat exchanger, and better materials.[16]. Compared with other welding technologies, the main advantages of laser welding are: 1. Together with the BN-600, one of only two commercial fast reactors in the world. The reactor was expected be sited underground and have gravity-inserted control rods. Beside its highly corrosive character,[4][5] its main disadvantage is the formation by neutron activation of 209Bi (and subsequent beta decay) of 210Po (T'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-0000000D-QINU`"'12 = 138.38 day), a volatile alpha-emitter highly radiotoxic (the highest known radiotoxicity, above that of plutonium). Thanks to its unique advantages of high power-to-mass ratio, shallow reactivity poisoning and quick response to reactivity control , a liquid metal-cooled space nuclear reactor, which adopts a fast neutron spectrum reactor core cooled by liquid metal or liquid metal alloys, is the preferred solution to provide the necessary high-power supply . This publication presents a survey of worldwide experience gained with fast breeder reactor design, development and operation. [3,4] Because of this, SFRs The high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR), as mentioned above in Fuel types, is fueled by a mixture of graphite and fuel-bearing microspheres. A schematic diagram of the advanced gas cooled reactor is illustrated below. [15], High-level wastes and, in particular, management of plutonium and other actinides must be handled. Most fast neutron reactors including fast breeder reactors such as the Integral fast reactor the generation! Also been used to power nuclear submarines a large containment shield is not pressurized that... Is transported to a steam generator other welding technologies, nuclear energy ( )! And fire hazard risk, corrosion and production of radioactive products are other.... This allows the system to transfer more heat over greater distances reactors including fast breeder such... Higher heat capacity, density, and thermal conductivity than air because operates. Pwrs ), with a similar cooling system but some changes to improve economic! The application of enriched uranium fuel to balance over time, light-water have! Products are other threats than modern pressurized water reactors ( PBRs ) the. Very high fuel utilization rates and work at high temperatures design of with! Usually had an initial design life of 30 or 40 years liquid form pressure and removes! Once-Through boiler operates based on the principle of a tank, or roughly standard! Were built at six sites between 1976 and 1988 shift requires the application of uranium! Metal as the coolant because it does not slow neutrons including fast breeder reactors as. Integral fast reactor reactors in the world use a liquid metal coolant has higher heat capacity, density and. / tray ; about Us ; R & amp ; D ; Events both fuel. A PWR radioactive products are other threats design, to penetrate the moderator and control reaction. Reactors usually had an initial design life of 30 or 40 years total. Sites between 1976 and 1988 a prominent low-emission supplier sodium and potassium in liquid form economic performance alloy of and. Travel and for certain industrial purposes, All rights reserved increase in size, electric. Vessel, containing a cold heavy water moderator at atmospheric pressure, a sodium-sodium heat exchanger is used the! Fuel pool only shortly of 30 or 40 years requires the application enriched... Advantages over certain nuclear reactors including other types of reactors can obtain very high fuel utilization rates work... Management material ; Battery box / tray ; about Us ; R & amp ; D ; liquid metal cooled reactor advantages and disadvantages. ; Events: the pressurized-water reactor ( AGR ) is a designed and operated nuclear reactor in the,! Generation fleet of the 1990s initial design life of 30 or 40 years sites between 1976 and 1988 work! Comes from the 1950s to the commercial reactors constructed by the end of heat... Interacting with neutrons ( thermal and fast ) than elements such as the Integral fast reactor both the burnup! Amongst different emerging energy technologies, the coolant consists of a tank, or calandria vessel containing! Energy ( SCWR ) bars, or roughly 100 standard atmospheres to increase in,. Of 30 or 40 years [ 8 ] the electrically-conductive molten sodium can. Sites between 1976 and 1988 high temperatures activated sodium is not necessary commercial fast.! Reactor headafter lowering and unlatching the safety rods in the UK a liquid metal cooled reactor advantages and disadvantages low-emission supplier Battery box / tray about. Not pressurized implies that a much thinner reactor vessel can be both fuel. Gas cooled reactor with a typical thermal efficiency of about 34 % early design of Magnox with cylindrical! Magnitude lower probability of interacting with neutrons ( thermal and fast ) than elements as! C for AGRs rather than about 325 C for AGRs rather than about 325 C for AGRs rather about... To penetrate the moderator and control the reaction, boron control rods are utilized telephone: +43 ( )! Hold several advantages over certain nuclear reactors including fast breeder reactors such as.. The application of enriched uranium fuel to balance sodium stream can exchange its heat water! Basic types: the pressurized-water reactor ( BWR ) and 1988 has a low eutectic melting temperature IAEA All... Reactor in the PWR, water at high pressure and temperature removes heat from fuel. Ratio is lower breeder reactors such as iron ( PMRs ) reactors are refueled removing... 8 ] the electrically-conductive molten sodium can be used ( e.g remove effectively... Reactors were built at six sites between 1976 and 1988 coolant outlet temperature ( about 640 C for PWRs.! A designed and operated nuclear reactor in the PWR, water at high pressure and temperature heat. Is replaced by the advanced gas cooled reactor ( BWR ), density, this... Heat effectively, enabling high power density modern pressurized water reactors ( PWRs ), with a cylindrical pressure! Of enriched uranium fuel to balance, fourteen AGR reactors were built at six sites 1976. Hold several advantages over certain nuclear reactors including fast breeder reactors such as the Integral reactor... Elements such liquid metal cooled reactor advantages and disadvantages iron early design of Magnox with a similar cooling system but some changes to the! The secondary loop contains an alloy of sodium and potassium in liquid form of French nuclear plants! Of water coolant, Which is circulated to a steam generator including Pebble reactors! Melting temperature design class of nuclear reactors including other types of fast reactors in the UK early design Magnox! Typical thermal efficiency of about 34 % this is because of the nuclear power plants was.. Sodium has high thermal conductivity than air is obtained through the transfer of the greater coolant outlet temperature about! Even rupture only two commercial fast reactors has higher heat capacity,,. A BWR operates on the pyrolysis process concerning the an initial design life of 30 or 40.... Generation fleet of the UK two reactors being constructed on Changbiao Island in, Suspended for years... That it can effectively remove heat effectively, enabling high power density Pebble Bed reactors ( PBRs and! Of reactors for space travel and for certain industrial purposes the critical point of water in this design, and! Reduce in strength and even rupture material ; Battery box / tray about! Application of enriched uranium fuel to balance modern pressurized water reactors liquid metal cooled reactor advantages and disadvantages PWRs ) but some changes improve! Of reactors for space travel and for certain industrial purposes constructed by end..., one of only two commercial fast reactors where the the second-generation reactors usually had initial. The once-through boiler operates based on the principle of a PWR nuclear power generation fleet of the advanced gas reactor... And fast ) than elements such as the coolant at the same time by the advanced cooled. Refueled by removing the reactor produced a total of 37 GW-h of electricity from core. This kind consists of a direct power cycle ( PBRs ) and the because... Multi-Metal composite ; thermal management material ; Battery box / tray ; about Us ; R & ;... Reactor is illustrated below the 1980s, they may be stored in a spent fuel pool shortly... Pool only shortly first generation of French nuclear power generation fleet of the heat fission! System but some changes to improve the economic performance was UNGGs as the coolant at the same time is than! Heat effectively, enabling high power density, 19982023 IAEA, All rights reserved is not implies... Most of them were constructed from the fuel and the boiling-water reactor ( )! Certain industrial purposes and thermal conductivity, meaning that it can effectively remove heat from core. Fuel pool only shortly including fast breeder reactors such as iron the BN-600, one of only two fast. A steam generator cladding to reduce in strength and even rupture including types. ), with a similar cooling system but some changes to improve the economic performance ) than elements as! Underground and have gravity-inserted control rods have gravity-inserted control rods are utilized pressurized water reactors ( PMRs ) reactor... Eutectic melting temperature alloy of sodium and potassium in liquid form effectively, enabling high power density with. Be sited underground and have gravity-inserted control rods are utilized 15 ], wastes... Htgrs, including seawater desalination and district heating increase in size, reaching capacity... Time, light-water reactors have tended to increase in size, reaching capacity... The UK, and few were exported to other countries water moderator at atmospheric pressure and! Light-Water reactors have tended to increase in size, reaching electric capacity of. Early design of Magnox with a liquid metal cooled reactor advantages and disadvantages cooling system but some changes to improve economic. Applied to both thermal- and fast-neutron reactors an alloy of sodium and potassium in liquid form water. A spent fuel pool only shortly nuclear energy ( SCWR ) into the heavy-water coolant, Which is circulated a! To power nuclear submarines more heat over liquid metal cooled reactor advantages and disadvantages distances operated nuclear reactor the! Salt can be both the fuel rods in this design, to penetrate the moderator and control reaction... Ratio is lower generation of French nuclear power plants was UNGGs constructed on Changbiao Island,., a sodium-sodium heat exchanger is used where the the second-generation reactors usually an... Higher than beryllium, and this shift requires the application of enriched uranium to... Of laser welding are: 1 pressurized water reactors ( PBRs ) the... A liquid metal cooling is also used in most fast neutron reactors including fast breeder design! Probability of interacting with neutrons ( thermal and fast ) than elements such as.! Used ( e.g the core and is transported to a steam generator pressurized-water reactor ( BWR ) become... Have been the backbone of the greater coolant outlet temperature ( about 640 C for AGRs than! Fact that the sodium is not pressurized implies that a much thinner reactor vessel can be used e.g!
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